Lesson X

                                     DEMONSTRATION IN TEACHING

     In the demonstration of a new product, the speaker shows the product, tells all the  good thing about the product to promote it in order  to convince the audience that the product is worth buying.

     In the activists’ demonstration, the activists air their grievances and publicly denounce the acts of a person or of an institution, like the government, against whom they are demonstrated.

     When a master teacher asked to demonstration in teaching on a teaching strategy, she shows to the audience how to use a teaching strategy effectively.

     In all three instances of demonstration, there is an audience,  a process of speaking, and a process of showing a product or a method or proofs to convince the audience to buy the product, use the strategy or rally behind their cause.

     What the n is a demonstration? Webster’s International Dictionary defines it as “a public showing emphasizing the salient , merits, utility, efficiency, etc, of an article or product..” in teaching it is showing how a thing is done and emphasizing  of the salient merits, utility and efficiency  of a concept, a method or a process or an attitude.

     What guiding principles must we observe in using a demonstration as a teaching – learning experience? Edgar Dale (1969) gives at least three:

1. Establish rapport. Greet your audience. Make them feel at ease by your warmth and sincerity. Stimulate their interest by making your demonstration and yourself interesting. Sustain their attention.

2.  Avoid COLK fallacy (Clear Only If Known). What is this fallacy? It is the assumption that what is clear to the expert  demonstrator is also clearly known to the person for whom the message is intended. To avoid the fallacy, it is best for the expert demonstrator to assume that his audience knows  nothing or a little about  what he is intending to demonstrate for him to be very    thorough, clear and detailed  in his demonstration  even to a point of facing the risk of being repetitive.

3. Watch for key options. What are key options? Dale (1996) says “ they are the ones at which  an error is likely to be made, the places at which many people stumble and where the knacks and tricks of the trade are especially important”. The good demonstrator recognizes [possible stumbling blocks to learners and highlights them in some way. What are usually highlighted are the “don’t’s” of a process or a strategy.

To ensure that the demonstration works, we ought to plan and prepare very well before we conduct the demonstration. In planning and preparing for demonstration, Brown (1969) suggests methodical procedures by the following questions:

1. What are our objectives? How does your class stand with respect to these objectives?  This is to determine entry knowledge and skills of your students.

2. Is there a better way to achieve your ends?

3. If there is a more effective way to attain your purpose, then replace the demonstration method the more effective one.

4. Do you have access to all necessary  materials and equipments to make the demonstration? Have a checklist of necessary equipment and material. This may include written materials.

5. Are you familiar with the sequence and content of the proposed demonstration? Outline the steps and rehearse your demonstration.

6. Are the limits realistic?

You have planned and rehearsed your demonstration, your materials and equipment  are ready, you have prepared your students, then you can proceed to the demonstration itself. Dale (1969) gives several points to observe:

1. Set the tone for good communication. Get and keep your audience’s interest.

2. Keep your demonstration simple.

3. Do not wonder from the main ideas.

4. Check to see that your demonstration is being understood.  Watch your audience for signs of bewilderment, boredom or disagreement.

5. Do not hurry your demonstration. Asking questions to check understanding can serve as a “brake”.

6. Do not drag out the demonstration. Interesting things have never dragged out.  They create their own tempo.

7. Summarize as you go along and provide a concluding summary. Use the chalkboard, the over head projector, charts, diagram, power point and whatever other materials are appropriate to synthesize your demonstration.

8. Hand out written materials at the conclusion.

What questions can you ask to evaluate your classroom demonstration? Dale (1969) enumerates:

Was your demonstration adequately and skillfully prepared? Did you select demonstrable skills or ideas? Were the desired behavioral outcomes clear?

 Did you follow the step by step plan? Did you make use of additional materials appropriate to your purpose – chalkboard, felt board, pictures, charts, diagrams, models, overhead transparencies, or slides?

Was the demonstration itself correct? Was your explanation simple enough so that most of the students understood it easily?

Did you keep checking to see that all your students were concentration on what you were doing?

Could every person see and hear?  If a skill was demonstrated for imitation, was it presented from the physical point of view of the learner?

Did you help students do their own generalizing?

Did you take enough time to demonstrate the key points?

Did you review and summarize the key points?

Did your students participate in what you were doing by asking thoughtful questions at the appropriate time?

Did you evaluation of a student learning indicate that your demonstration achieved its purpose?

Lesson IX

         TEACHING WITH DRAMATIZED EXPERIENCES

     Something dramatic is something that is stirring or affecting or moving.  A dramatic entrance is something that catches or holds  our attention and has an emotional impact. If our teaching is dramatic, our students get attracted, interested and affected. If they are affected and move by what we taught, we will most likely have an impact on them. So, why can’t we be dramatic all the time?

 Dramatized experiences can range from the formal plays, pageant lo less formal tableau, pantomime, puppets and role playing.

       Plays depict life, character or culture or a combination of all three. They offer excellent opportunities to portray vividly important ideas about life. Pageants are usually community dramas that are based on local history, presented by local actors. An example is a historical pageant that traces the growth of a school.  Play and pantomime require  much time for preparation and so cannot be part of everyday classroom program.

     Pantomime and tableaux, when compared to a play and a pageant are less demanding in terms of labor, time and preparation. These are purely visual experiences. A pantomime is the “art of conveying a story through bodily movements only “(Webster’s  New Collegiate Dictionary). Its effect on the audience depends on the movements of the actor. A tableau )a French word which means picture) is a picture – like scene composed of a people against a background. A tableau is often used to celebrate Independence Day, Christmas, and United Day.

     Dale (1996) claims the puppets, unlike the regular stage play, can present ideas with extreme simplicity – without elaborate scenery or costume  - yet effectively.                      

    As an instructional device, the puppet show can involve the entire group of students – as speakers of parts, manipulators  of the figures, and makers of the puppet.

Types of Puppet

         SHADOW PUPPETS-flat black silhouette made from lightweight cardboard and shown behind a screen.

         ROD PUPPETS -flat cut out figures tacked to a stick, with one or more movable parts, and operated from below the stage level by wire rods or slender sticks.

         HAND PUPPETS -the puppet’s head is operated by the forefinger of the puppeteer, the little finger and thumb being used to animate the puppet.

         LOVE-and-FINGER PUPPET-make use of old gloves to which small costumed figures are attached

         MARIONETTES-flexible, jointed puppets operated by strings or wires attached to a cross bar and maneuvered from directly above the stage.

    

                     Hand Puppet                                 Rod Puppet                           

                                                                                                                                                                                         

                 Finger Puppet                            Shadow Puppet

  

     What principles must be observed in choosing a puppet play for teaching? Dale, (1996) quoting from the puppeteers of America offers many suggestions, among which are the following:

  Do not  use puppets  for plays that can be done just as well or better by other dramatic means.

  Puppet plays must be based on action rather than on words.

  Keep the plays short.

  Do not omit the possibilities of music and dancing as part of the upper show.

  Adapt the puppet show to the age, background, and tastes of the students.

Another from of dramatized experienced is a role – playing. Role – playing Is an unrehearsed, unprepared and spontaneous dramatization of a “let’s pretend” situation where assigned participants are absorbed by their own roles in the situation described by the teachers.

 How is Role – playing done? It can be done by describing a situation which would create different viewpoints on an issue and then asking the students to play the roles of the individuals involved.

        How did you, as actors, feel? Would you act/think that way in real life?

        As observers, would you agree with agree with what the actors said or did?

        Any lessons learned?

Lesson VIII

              TEACHING WITH CONTRIVED EXPERIENCES

     The model of the atom, the globe, the planetarium, the simulated election process and the preserved specimen fall under contrived experiences, the second band of experiences in Dale’s Cone of Experiences.

  What are contrived experiences? These are “edited” copies of reality and are used as substitute for real things when it is not practical or not possible to bring or do the real thing in the classroom. These contrived experiences are designed to stimulate to real – life situation.

     The atom, the planetarium are classified as models. A model is a “reproduction of a real – thing in a small scale, or large scale, or exact size, - but made of synthetic materials. It is a substitute for a real thing which may or may not be operational” (Brown, et al, 1969).

     The planetarium may also be considered a mock – up. A mock – up is “an arrangement of a real device or associated devises, displayed in such a way that representation of reality is created. The mock – up may be simplified in order to emphasize certain features. It may be an economical reproduction of a complicated or costly device, to be observed for learning process. Usually, it is prepared substitute for a real thing; sometimes it is a giant arrangement” (Brown 1969). The planetarium is an example of a mock – up, in the sense that the order or the arrangement of the planet is shown and the real processes of  the planet’s rotation on their axis and the revolution of the planets around the sun are displayed. A mock – up is a special model where the parts  of the model are singled  out , heightened and magnified in order to focus on that part of the process  under study. The planetarium involves of model of each of the planet and the sun but it focuses on the processes of the planet’s rotation and revolution and so is also considered a mock – up.

     The preserved specimen fall under  specimens and objects. A specimen is any individual or item considered typical of a group, class or whole. Objects may also include artifacts displayed in a museum  or objects displayed in exhibits or preserved insects specimen in science.

     The school election process describe above is a form of simulation. Simulation is a “representation of  manageable real event in which the learner is an active participant engaged  in a learning behavior or in applying  previously acquired  skills or knowledge” (Orlich, etv al, 1994). In addition to the election of class and  school officers given above,  other examples of these are fire and earthquake drills  which schools usually conduct. Organizers of earthquake and fire drills create a situation highly similar to the real situation when an earthquake happens.

     Another instructional material included in contrived experiences is game. Is there a difference between a game and a simulation? Games are played to win while simulation need not have a winner. Simulation seems to be more easily applied to the study of issues rather than to processes.

     Why do we make use of contrived experiences? We use models, mock – ups, specimen,  and objects to: 

 1. Overcome limitations of space and time.

 2. To “edit” reality for us to be able to focus on parts or a process of a system that we intend to study,  3. To overcome difficulty of size. 

 4. To understand the inaccessible , and 

 5. Help the learners understand abstractions.

     We use simulations and games to make our class interactive and to develop the decision – making skills and knowledge construction skills of our students. Orlich, et al (1994) enumerates ten (10) general purposes of simulations and games in education:

1. To develop changes in attitudes

2. To change specific behavior

3. To prepare participants for assuming new roles in the future

4. To help individuals understand their current roles

5. To increase the students’ ability to apply principles

6. To reduce complex problems or situations to manageable elements

7. To illustrate roles that may affects one’s life but that one may never assume

8. To motivate learners

9.  To develop analytical processes

10.    To sensitive individuals to another person’s life role.

In addition to the election processes describe above, what are additional examples of simulation? A famous example is a “bomb shelter” simulation.  “you are under attack. The bomb shelter can accommodate only five (5) persons. There are eight (8) of you in the group. Decide who must get in. other famous example of simulation In school are play stores. One Grade II teacher used play store to teach subtraction of numbers involving amount of money . Another  example is an awareness – raising experience about common disabilities  for secondary  students. Mark  J, Hallenbeck and Darlene McMaster (1991) had this experience: students without disabilities simulated the experiences of visual and hearing – impaired people and those with physical disabilities on “simulation day”. They claimed that students gained a new perspectives of the needs and feelings of student with disability.

     In the English subject, David Sudol (1983) found that literary concepts could be successfully taught by involving the students by having them develop characters  and then develop a plot. Sudol also suggested  that similarly, you could select some classic quote, for example, the opening paragraph from A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens, “it was the worst of times” and ask the students to stimulate a plot, a story line,  character and location. Use the current year. How closely do you think the students might parallel dickens? After the simulation, “A Tale of Two Cities” could be read both for knowledge and for comparison to the students outline.

               Games are use for any of these purposes: 1. To practice and or to refine knowledge/skills already acquired. 2. To identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge or skills. 3. To serve as a summation or review, and 4. To develop new relationships among concepts and principles.

If you want a class that is fully alive, think of how you can integrate  native games in your lesson. Refer to Science and Mathematics of Toys , a sourcebook for teachers, published and printed by the Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development of the University of the Philippines.

     Here is the game that you can play at the beginning of the year, the Human Intelligence Hunt. Armstrong (1994) suggests that you use this when you are introducing Multiple Intelligences theory at the beginning of the year. How is it played?

Each student receives a list of tasks like those below.  On your signal, students take the task sheet along with a pen or pencil and find other students in the room who can do the tasks listed. There are three basic rules:

1. Students must actually perform the tasks listed, not simply say they can do them.

2. Once a student performs a task  to the hunter’s satisfaction, he or she should initial the blank space next to the appropriate task on the hunter tasks sheet.

3. “Hunters”  can ask a  person to perform only one task; therefore, to complete a hunt, a student must have nine (9) different sets of initials.

Lesson VII

                              DIRECT, PURPOSEFUL EXPERIENCES

     Whatever skills or concept we have did not come out of the blue. We spent hours doing the activity by ourselves in order to acquire the skill. The same thing is through with the four  (4)narrators above. They learned the skills by doing. The Graduate School Professor  had to do the computer task herself to learn the skill. The secretary learn from her mistake and repeatedly doing the task correctly enabled her to master the skill. The Grade IV pupil got a crystal clear concepts of the size of the elephant and giraffe. For the Grade VI teacher, the statistical concepts of positive and negative discrimination indices became fully understood only after the actual experience of item analysis. All these experiences point to the need to use, whenever we can, direct, purposeful experiences in the teaching – learning process.

     What are referred to as a direct, purposeful experience? These are our concrete and firsthand  experiences that make up the foundation of our learning. These are the rich experiences  that our senses bring from which we construct the ideas, the concepts, the generalization that gives meaning and order to our lives. (Dale. 1969). They are sensory experiences.

     These direct activities  may be preparing   meals , making a piece of furniture, doing power point presentation, performing a laboratory experiment, delivering a speech, or taking a trip.

     In contrast, indirect experiences are experiences of other people that we observe, read or hear about. They are not our own self – experiences but still experiences in the sense that we see , read hear about them. They are not firsthand but rather vicarious or indirect experiences .

     Climbing a mountain is a firsthand, direct experience. Seeing it done on films or reading about it is vicarious, substitute experience. It is clear, therefore, that we can approach the world of reality directly through the senses and indirectly with reduced sensory experience. For example, we can bake black forest cake or see it done in the tv or read about it.

     Why are these direct experiences described to be purposeful?  Purposeful because the experiences are not purely mechanical.  They are not a matter of going through the motion. These are not “mere sensory excitation”. They are experiences that are internalized  in the sense that these experiences involved the asking of questions that have significance in the life of the person undergoing the direct experience.

     They are also described as purposeful because these experiences are undergone in relation to a purpose, i.e. learning. Why do we want our students to have a direct experience in conducting an experiment in the laboratory? It is done in the relation to a certain learning objective.

     Where should these direct , purposeful experience lead us to? The title of this lesson “direct, Purposeful Experiences and Beyond” implies that these direct experiences must not be the period or the dead end. We must be brought to a higher plane. The higher plane referred  to here is the level of generalization and abstraction.

     That is why we speak of “hands – on, minds – on, and hearts – on” approach. Out of the direct experience , thoughts or meanings following reflection must flow or run the risk  of a lesson consisting of activity after another activity enjoyed by the learners who cannot make connection with the activity themselves.

     The Grade IV pupils zoo experience of the elephant  and giraffe as given in the ACTIVITY phase of the lesson enables him to understand clearly and visualize correctly an elephant and a giraffe upon reading or hearing the words “elephant” and “giraffe”. The  Cone of experience implies that we move from the concrete to the abstract (and from the abstract to the concrete as well.)  Direct experiences serves as the foundation of concepts formation, generalization and abstraction. John Dewey (1916) has made this fundamental point succinctly.

     An ounce of experience is better a ton of theory because it is only in experience that any theory has vital and verifiable significance. An experience, a very humble experience, is capable of generating and carrying any amount of theory (or intellectual content), but a theory apart from an experience cannot be definitely grasped as a theory. It tends to become a mere verbal formula, a set of catchwords  used to render thinking or genuine theorizing unnecessary  and impossible.

     If direct, purposeful experiences or firsthand sensory experiences make us learn concepts and skills.

Lesson VI

                                       USING AND EVALUATING 
                       INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

           One of the instructional materials used to attain instructional objectives is fieldtrip.

It is not enough to bring the class  out for the fieldtrip and make them observe anything or everything or use their instructional materials for no preparation and clear reason at all. Perhaps this is what happened to the field trip joined in by Linus, that’s why he seems not able to cite something specific that he learned from the field trip.

     For an effective use of instructional materials such as field trip, there are guidelines that ought to observed, first of all, in their selection and second, in their use.

Selections of Materials

     The following guide questions express standards to consider in the selection of instructional materials:

 Does the material give a true picture of the ideas they present? To avoid misconceptions, t is always good to ask when the material was produced.

 Does the material contribute meaningful content to the topic under study? Does the material help you achieve the instructional objective?

 Is the material aligned to the curriculum standards and competencies?

 Is the material culture – and grades – sensitive?

 Does the material have culture bias?

 Is the material appropriate for the age, Intelligence, and experience of the learner?

 Is the physical condition of the material satisfactory? An example, is a photograph properly mounted?

 Is there a teacher’s guide to provide a briefing for effective use? The chance that the instructional material will be use to the maximum and to the optimum is increased  with a teacher’s guide

 Can the material in question help to make a student better thinkers and develop their critical faculties? With exposure to the mass media, it is highly important that we maintain and and strengthen our rational powers.

 Does the use of material make the learners collaborate with one another?

 Does the material promote self – study?

 Is the material worth the time, expense and effort involved? A field trip, for instance, requires much time, effort and money. It is more effective than any other  less  expensive and less demanding instructional material that can take its place? Or is there a better substitute?

The Proper Use of Materials

     You may have  selected your instructional material well. This is no guarantee that the instructional material will be effectively utilized. It is one thing to select a good instructional material, it is another thing to use it well.

     P – prepare yourself

     P – prepare your student

     P – present the material

     F – follow – up

     To ensure the effective use of instructional material, Hayden Smith and Thomas  Nagel, (1972) book authors on Instructional media, advise us to abide by the acronym PPPF.

     Prepare yourself . You know your lesson objective and what you expect from the class after the session and why you have selected such particular r instructional materials. You have a plan on how you will proceed, what question to ask, how  you will evaluate learning and how you will tie loose ends before the bell rings.

     Prepare your students. Set reasonably high class expectations and learning goals. It is sound practice to give them guide questions for them to be able to answer during the discussion. Motivate them and keep them interested and engaged.

     Present the material. Under  the best possible conditions.  Many teachers are guilty of the R.O.G syndrome. This is means “running out if gas” which usually refers from poor planning. (Smith, 1972) using media and materials, especially if they are mechanical in nature, often requires rehearsal and a carefully planned performance. Wise are you if  you try the materials ahead of your class use to avoid a fiasco.

     Follow – up. Remember that you  use instructional materials to achieve an objective, not to kill time nor to give yourself a  break, neither to merely entertain the class. You use the instructional for the attainment  of a lesson objective. Your use the instructional material is not the end in itself. It is a means to an end, the attainment of a learning objective. So, there is need to follow up to find out if objective was attained or not.

Lesson V

                                                  CONE OF EXPERIENCE

Objectives:

      To define cone of experience

      To enumerate the sensory aids in the cone of experience

      To identify the implication to teaching

     The cone of experience is a visual model, a pictorial device that presents bands  of experience arranged according to degree of abstraction  and not degree of difficulty. The further you go  from the bottom of the cone, the more abstract the experience becomes.

     Dale (1969) asserts that:
                                           

     The pattern of arrangement of the bands of experience is not difficult but degree of abstraction – the amount of immediate sensory  participation that is involved. A still photograph of a  is not more difficult to understand than a dramatization of Hamlet. It is simply in itself a less concrete teaching  material than the dramatization (Dale, 1969)

     Dale further explains that “the individual bands of the cone of  experience stand for experiences that are fluid, extensive, and continually interact” (Dale, 1969). It should not be taken literally in its simplified form. The different kinds of sensory aid often overlap and sometimes blend into one another. Motion pictures can be silent or they can combine sight and sound. Students may merely view a demonstration  or  they may view  it then participate in it.

     Does the cone of experience mean that all the teaching and learning must  move systematically  from base to pinnacle, from different purposeful experiences to  verbal symbols? Dale (1969) categorically says:

     …No. we continually shuttle back and forth among various kinds of experiences. Every day each of us acquires new concrete experiences – through walking on the street, gardening, dramatics and endless other means. Such learning by doing, such pleasurable return to the concrete is natural throughout our lives – and at every age level. On the other hand, both the older child and the young pupil make abstractions every day and may need help in doing this well.

     In our teaching then, we do not always begin with direct experience at the base of the cone. Rather, we begin with the kind of experience that is most appropriate to the needs and abilities of particular learning situation. Then, of course we vary this experience with many other types of learning activities. (Dale, 1969).

     One kind of sensory experience is not necessarily more educationally useful than another. Sensory experienced are mixed and interrelated. When students listen to you as you give your lecturette, they do not just have an auditory experience. They also have visual experience in the sense that they are “reading” your facial expressions and bodily gestures.

     We face some risk when we overemphasize the amount of direct experience to learn a concept. Too much reliance on concrete experience may actually obstruct the process of meaningful generalization. The best will be striking a balance  between concrete and abstract, direct participation and symbolic expression for the learning that will continue throughout life.

     It is true that the older the person is, the more abstract his concepts are likely to be. This can be attributed to physical  maturation, more vivid experiences and sometimes greater motivation for learning.  But an older student does not live purely in his world of abstract ideas  just  as a child does  not  only in the world of sensory experience . both old and young shuttle in a world of the concrete and he abstract.

     What are these bands of experience  in Dale’s Cone of experience? It is best to look back  at the cone itself. But let us expound  on each of them starting with the most direct.

     Direct purposeful experiences – these are first hand experiences which serves as the foundation of our learning.  We build up our  reservoir of meaningful information and ideas through seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling. In the context  of teaching – learning process, it is learning by doing. If I want my student to learn how to focus on a compound light microscope, I will let him focus one, of course, after I showed him how.

     Contrived experience – in here, we make use of  a representative models or mock – ups of reality for practical reasons and so that we can make the real -life  accessible to the students’ perceptions and understanding. For instance a mock – up of Apollo,  the capsule for the exploration of the moon, enabled the North American Aviation Co. to study the problem of lunar flight.

     Remember how you will taught to tell time? Your teacher may have use a mock – up, a clock whose hands you could  turn to set the time you were instructed to set. Simulations such as playing, “sari – sari” to teach  subtracting centavos from pesos is another  example of contrived experiences.  Conducting election of class and school officers by  simulating  how local and national elections are conducted is one more example of contrived experiences.

     Dramatized experiences – by dramatization,  we can participate in a reconstructed experience, even though the original  the original event is far removed from us in time. We relieve the outbreak of the Philippine revolution by acting out the role of characters in the drama.

     Demonstrations – it is a visualized explanation of an important fact, idea or process by the use  of photographs, drawings, films, displays or guided motions. It is showing how things are done. A teacher  in Physical Education shows the class how to dance tango.

     Study trips –these are excursions, educational trips, and visits conducted to observe an event that is unavailable within the classroom.

     Exhibits – these are displays to be seen by spectators.  They may consists of working models arranged meaningfully or photographs with modes,  charts, posters. Sometimes exhibits are “ for your eyes only” . there are  some exhibits however, that include sensory  experiences where spectators are allowed to touch or manipulate models displayed.

     Televisions and motion pictures – televisions and motions pictures can reconstruct the reality of the past so effectively that we are made to feel we are there.  The unique value of the messages communicated by fil and television lies in their feeling of realism, their emphasis on persons and personality, their organized presentation, and their ability to select, dramatized, highlight, and clarify.

     Still pictures, recordings, radio  - these are visual and auditory devices which may be used by an individual or a group. Still pictures lack the sound and motion of a sound film. The radio broadcast of an actual event may often be Liked to a televise broadcast minus its visual dimension.

     Visual symbols – these are no longer realistic reproduction of physical things for these are highly abstract representations. Examples are charts, graphs, maps, and diagrams.

     Verbal symbols – they are not  like the objects or ideas for which they stand. They usually do not contain visual clues to their meaning.  Written words fall under this category.  It may be a word for a concrete object (book), an idea (freedom of speech), a scientific principle ( the principle of balance), a formula (e=mc2)

     What are the implications of the Cone of Experience in the teaching  - learning process?

1. We do not use only one medium of communication in isolation.  Rather we use many instructional materials to help the learner conceptualize his/her experience.

2. We avoid teaching directly at the symbolic level of thought without adequate foundation of the concrete. Learners concept will lack deep roots in direct experience.  Dale cautions us when he said: “ these rootless experiences will not have the generative power to produce  additional concepts and will not enable the learner to deal with the new situations that he faces” (Dale, 1969).

3. When teaching, we don’t get stuck in the concrete. Let us strive to bring our students to the symbolic or abstract level to develop their higher order thinking skills.